Patricia Senko

MHL 568

13 September 1999

Nettl, Bruno. Theory and Method in Ethnomusicology. New York: The Free Press of Glencoe, 1964.

In this book, Nettl describes the tasks and goals of ethnomusicologists. His purpose is to provide a guide for the beginning researcher, presenting information that "follows…the order of events of ethnomusicological research" (preface, vii). Nettl begins with a chapter describing the nature of ethnomusicology. In the following chapters he presents a discussion of field work, including methods of transcription and description of music and style. The final chapters of the book are devoted to instruments and music in culture. Throughout the text, he gives the reader examples of research methods applied by scholars in the field.

Chapter One is devoted to a definition of ethnomusicology. Nettl states that it is a combination of cultural anthropology and historical musicology. It is not an outgrowth of one field in particular but is a culmination of many disciplines, including but not limited to psychology, geography, and physics. Ethnomusicologists focus on three types of music: music in traditional (non-literate) societies, Asian and North African high cultures, and folk music in all cultures.

Nettl believes, however, that it is the approach to study that distinguishes ethnomusicologists from other scholars. Geographical concentration is secondary.

He cites the question of studying music in Western high culture. According to Nettl, music historians have focused only mildly on factors in musical culture. An ethnomusicologist, however, would "take into account the role of music in culture, the problems of performance practice, those of descriptive versus prescriptive notation, and the procedures and methods of describing music" (12). In addition, ethnomusicologists bring objectivity to the study of Western music, applying techniques that are used in the study of other cultures.

In Chapter Two, Nettle guides the beginning scholar in a critical look at some of the resources that are available. The most helpful of the basic, general books is Ethnomusicology by Jaap Kunst. The information within is biased, based primarily on the author’s interests, but the bibliography contains indexes of authors, subjects, tribes, and periodicals, totaling approximately 5,000 items (28). Among the scholars that should be studied is E.M Hornbostel. Though he never published a book that included all of his research, the breadth of his writings is immense. He covered a great geographical area and presented a variety of approaches to study in the field.

Hornbostel collaborated with other scholars in many of his writings. Of note is an article written with Otto Abraham. "Tonsystem und Musik der Japaner" is the first in a series of articles that discuss music from a melodic viewpoint. In this series a precedent was set for methods in describing music, emphasizing scales and intonation and giving less attention to rhythm and form. Another landmark Hornbostel publication is "Systematik der Musikinstrumente." Together with Curt Sachs, Hornbostel created a method of classifying musical instruments that is used even today.

Sachs, himself, was a scholar who produced many noteworthy publications. Among these is The Rise of Music in the Ancient World, a book that provides an evolutionist view of music history. According to Nettl, the theory of evolution in music is not reliable, but in his opinion this book is valuable for its discussion of styles in world music. Sachs wrote not only about the history of music but also about musical instruments. Mentioned above is the classification scheme devised by Sachs in conjunction with Hornbostel. Individually, however, Sachs produced the Real-Lexicon, a reference work devoted to geographic distribution, structure, and etymology of instruments. Overall, Sachs’ works are of a general nature, presented in simple terms, and the information within provides a guide for the beginning student.

Among other scholars in whom Nettl finds importance are Charles Seeger, Alan P. Merriam, and Willard Rhodes. Seeger attempts to form theories on all world music and prescribes methods for study. He discusses the relationship between the music itself and the methods that must be applied to describe it. Merriam made breakthroughs in African research and raises questions regarding ethnomusicology as a science. Rhodes influenced the advancement of ethnomusicology in the United States and served as the first president of the Society for Ethnomusicology. Their writings are some of the first American contributions to ethnomusicology and are essential reference tools for beginning students in the field.

After introducing the reader to resources, Nettl begins a discussion of field work. Chapter Three is devoted to this subject. According to Nettl, field trips are intended to reach one of two main goals. The first is to collect a general sampling of a musical culture. Most people limit their search by the type of music being collected. An example of such work is David P. McAllester’s study of the Navaho Enemy Way (66). The musical examples were collected from a Navaho ceremony, and a great portion of the study centers upon the expression of cultural values through music.

The purpose of the second type of field trip is to collect an entire musical repertoire or experience of one individual. This method has proven to be beneficial in anthropological studies (67). Collecting from one person is a time-consuming endeavor. One field trip cannot provide all of the information necessary for a comprehensive study. For this reason, prolonged contact is essential. The student must first spend an extended period of time with the subject (informant), asking questions and absorbing aspects of the culture. Following, a series of short visits is necessary. This allows for a concentration on specific aspects of culture as well as a look at subtle changes that might occur in the music or in the culture as time passes.

Nettl provides some suggestions for field work, including questions that can be useful in collecting data. The first category of research that he recommends is finding general material on a particular musical culture. As a basis for study, one should discover the different types of music, who sings or plays, and if the community has contact with other communities that might affect it. The student should then attempt to distinguish between types of music and question the role of the music in culture. As a further limitation, it is important to study each song or piece. The informant, as an essential part of any field work, should be studied as well. One should make his or her own observations about informants, but it is also useful to ask other members of the community to give their opinions. Finally, a study of musical instruments, their origins and roles is essential (74-76).

Eliciting performances from informants can sometimes be challenging. A lot of material can be gathered at ceremonies and other public events, providing the researcher with a view of music in its normal cultural setting. Sound quality on recordings is sometimes poor, however, and students are forced to attempt to record in a controlled setting. The disadvantage is that in some instances the performer is unwilling to perform in these conditions. Nettl recommends two methods that might be helpful in making the informant comfortable. If the student offers to sing a song from his or her culture the performer might be willing to do the same. A more subtle approach is to learn songs from the culture and perform them, making intentional errors. This gives the performer a sense of authority on the subject and might encourage him or her to perform the piece correctly.

In order to provide a comprehensive study, a student must analyze the music. Transcriptions of the musical examples are needed for detailed analysis. In Chapter Four, Nettl provides an overview of approaches as well as suggested procedure for transcription. The first step is to understand that standard Western notation cannot, in many cases, be used. If it is used, it must be altered. In studying cultures where smaller intervals than half steps occur frequently, for instance, one might choose to insert lines between those on the standard, five-line staff. Special symbols need to be devised to describe things such as fluctuations in pitch and duration.

Nettl recommends a general sequence that can be used as a starting point for transcribing. First, the student should listen to the piece, determining the number of instruments or singers. Then he or she should divide the piece structurally. This simply provides an outline of the piece. Before the student begins notating, the types of intervals and number of different pitches should be determined. If text is involved, portions should be recorded. Words can sometimes assist in deciphering seemingly complicated rhythms (121).

As an alternative to Western notation, many ethnomusicologists have adopted the hand graph. Using such a format enables the transcriber to trace the contour of a piece. On the vertical axis, from bottom to top (and lowest to highest), the relevant pitches are listed. Each square represents the smallest interval (i.e. half step). The horizontal axis is devoted to rhythm, each square signifying the smallest rhythmic duration (i.e. eighth note). The transcriber draws lines throughout the graph that represent the individual line, be it melody or harmony (121). This provides a more objective view than Western notation, but the similarity is the lack of attention to other features such as timbre or vibrato. Electronic devices that measure frequency and amplitude can achieve this end.

When a transcription is complete, the student is faced with the problem of description. There are two musical units of concern: the individual composition and a collection of several compositions. Logically, the individual pieces should be regarded first, and the emphasis should be on aspects of style and what distinguishes it from that of other cultures. Two processes are involved in this study: first, an objective analysis of the material; second, the description.

In Chapter Five, Nettl outlines three approaches to the description of style. The systematic approach entails identification and examination of all or a select group of musical characteristics. Usually music is divided into a number of elements such as pitch, rhythm, and form. An alternative to this is the intuitive approach. Here, the student attempts to identify the most important aspect of the music. Nettl suggests that this approach be avoided when describing music outside the student’s frame of reference. Specific aspects might seem striking to a listener who is unfamiliar with the music, and this objective view does not necessarily justify the importance of those aspects.

The third approach is the narrowest of the three. Using the selective approach, some ethnomusicologists analyze only certain aspects of music. Attention is given only to the use of melody or rhythm, for instance, in a particular culture. Nettl criticizes this approach, stating that although it might be useful to the individual scholar it rarely produces results that serve as a great contribution to the field of ethnomusicology (138).

Chapter Six introduces the reader to theories and methods in description. It is important to distinguish between content and non-thematic traits, especially when studying music as it relates to other cultures. A student should collect items that seem to be related then attempt to prove or disprove the similarity. This presents a challenge, for in studying genetic relationships among bodies of music, scholars have found that certain pieces very different in character have similar roots.

Because it is difficult to study every piece of music from a given culture, ethnomusicologists attempt to collect representative samples. Using a statistical approach, it is possible to describe a whole culture using only the samples. Sampling, however, can have negative effects. Some students make the mistake of taking a selection of pieces from the field and grouping them together without regard for their individual characteristics.

The problem is the absence of a good method of measuring musical similarity. It is possible to compare the styles of two pieces and to evaluate their similarity to each other, but it is difficult to determine whether two pieces are more similar to each other than two other pieces of music (176). One approach to this problem is the intuitive approach mentioned in Chapter Five. A scholar can use specific features of music to determine homogeneity. For instance, Nettl separated the world into three main areas on the basis of the use of scales and polyphony.

Defining the music area is a second possible means of determining homogeneity. The student studies the bodies of music found in different groups in a single culture, such as villages or families within a tribe. A sample from the various subsections can provide a general idea of style in the music culture as a whole. This directly relates to the aforementioned statistical approach.

A study of any musical culture would not be complete without regarding the musical instruments. Instruments provide insights into the history of traditional cultures, and because of their non-musical significance in today’s cultures, instruments can lead scholars to ideas of cultural values. For instance, in most cultures, instruments are noted for their relationship to sex and gender. Some instruments actually resemble sexual organs, while others hold "feminine" or "masculine" characteristics. This might not, however, affect the roles of the instruments in everyday life.

Chapter Seven not only includes a discussion of instruments’ roles in culture but also provides examples of types of studies. A broad but intensive approach is the attempt to describe all of the instruments of a cultural group. An example of such a study is the Karl Izikowitz study of South American Indian culture. Included is a description of each instrument as well as ways of playing, construction techniques, and methods of tuning (215). Musical styles are usually not included in such a study, and discussion of cultural background is only occasionally included.

According to Nettl, there are two other major approaches to studying instruments. Some scholars choose one particular type of instrument and study its distribution. Heinz Weischoff studied African drums and related them to instruments found on other continents. His study provided insights into cultural traits as well as acculturation.

Theodore C. Grame opened new doors when he studied the importance of raw materials in the development of instrument. He maintains that various materials are symbolic and reflect cultural values and methods of thinking (217).

Chapters Eight and Nine focus on music in culture, identifying different approaches to study. Some scholars study individuals, groups, or nations, limiting their studies to one place. Some study music as it relates to its geographic and historical environment. Regardless of the method, studying change in music enables the study of music as it relates to culture.

The problem of origin is difficult to solve. The origin of music or musical phenomena can be explained by coincidence, motivation by a nonmusical need, or the process of evolution (228). A study of change leads to questions of the conditions under which music changes and what types of changes occur. In some instances old repertoire is replaced, but alteration of established compositions is common, as well. Contact among cultures and the relocation of populations affect musical change. In some cases, however, musical style is transferred without the movement of a large population. By studying change in music, ethnomusicologists can reconstruct past events, identifying which cultures influenced the others.

Music can be better understood through an examination of cultural values. Likewise, it can be used as an aid to understanding values. There are certain types of music that are used in all cultures: ceremonial music, work songs, entertainment music, and signaling music. Ethnomusicologists study the relationship of this music with other cultural aspects such as dance, poetry, and language and are lead to conclusions about the role of music in culture.

This text provides a general view of ethnomusicology, supported by numerous examples from some of the leaders in the field. Nettl took care to reference many different works in describing each of the methods of field work, transcription, and description. Proving to be completely sequential, the book concludes with a discussion of music in culture, providing the reader with an idea of positive results that can be achieved through the intensive study described throughout the book.