Ximena Mercado

MHL 568- Paper 1

September 12, 2001

It is important to keep in mind, while reading Curt Sachs’ The Wellsprings of Music, edited by Jaap Kunst, that it was published in 1962. This being acknowledged, the reader can look at the ideas coming from an early ethnomusicologist to see how far the field has come, and what has remained constant. (The date also accounts for the outdated terminology of referring to traditional cultures as ‘primitive.’) Though the book covers a wide range of topics, Sachs’ ideas provide information in relation to three large questions; What is ethnomusicology? What does an ethnomusicologist do? and What methods does an ethnomusicologist use?

A definition of ethnomusicology is difficult to come up with even for ethnomusicologists. Sachs deals with this is several different ways. He breaks down the term, he tells the reader what it isn’t, and he implies what it is. He still does not give a word for word definition, however.

Ethnomusicology, a new branch of learning as Sachs describes it, was first referred to as comparative musicology. He found fault with the use of the word comparative, because all branches of knowledge are, if only at lower levels dependent on drawing similarities and differences. Further, the label comparative can only refer to a method, not a branch of learning. The dispute of terminology lead to the coining of ‘ethnomusicology.’ Sachs finds the term acceptable for this new practice. As an aggregate, ethnomusicology defines the work of a professional in this field who utilizes musicology and ethnology in his studies. "Connecting ethnology and musicology, the ethnomusicologist, like the astrophysicist and other composites tries to break the ties of departmental seclusion and aims at a merger on a higher level," (Sachs 16).

There are modern composers who have used aspects from primitive music, such as a striking melody or the Javanese isotonic scale. These aspects borrowed from non-western peoples belong in the study of western music, because everything else about the compositions is in the western music tradition. Sachs feels that nothing justifies the ethnomusicologist’s study of this "artificial exoticism and pseudo-archaism." Rather, that primitive and oriental music is due our utmost respect, "And respect implies the duty to help in preserving it," (Sachs 3).

Sachs describes westerners as people who do a lot of listening but do not hear. Music is so often played in recreational pursuits and as background filler, such as at a convenience store, that it has lost its sense and values. Music for the sake of music does not exist in the primitive world. Anthropologists before the twentieth century did not understand or respect the sacred place music holds for primitive cultures and wrote about its ugliness, unworthiness, and simplicity. However, primitive music is an integral part of life for it’s people and demands our respect and justifies our study of it

Sachs answers the question, what does an ethnomusicologist do, by laying out rules on how to be a proper ethnomusicologist. He does not come right out and say this, but his sometime critical tone helps to imply this sentiment. The most important things needed of an ethnomusicologist are a respect for the music and culture they are studying, keeping and open mind, and leaving Western bias, terminology, and theories behind. After this, an ethnomusicologist’s workshop can be divided into two components, fieldwork and desk work.

It is important for the ethnomusicologist to conduct their fieldwork by staying in the village of the people whose music they are studying. They must not simply visit as a tourist but gain the trust of the people and spend an extended amount of time. Of the many things involved with fieldwork, the ethnomusicologist must be sensitive to the beliefs of that culture and subtle mannerisms in their music. For example, magic is found in many primitive societies because of their lack of scientific explanations, and subsequently parallels in their use of music. Also, how a piece is sung is just as important as what is sung, and must be taken into account.

After gathering as much information as possible in the field, the ethnomusicologist returns to their desk where the transcription and analysis occurs. This is not an easy task for as Sachs says, "…descriptions of musical works and styles are hard to put in words, even harder to read and absorb, and almost impossible to translate into actual images. Yet, the issue cannot be avoided and the attempts must be made," (49). It is also important to remember not to use such western pitfalls as tonality, harmonic structure, or terminology.

The areas of fieldwork and deskwork have been greatly helped by the advancement of technology. Thomas Edison’s portable phonograph and subsequent inventions used for recording have been of utmost importance to fieldwork. The recording of music enables the ethnomusicologist to make other notes about the music without the stress of having to transcribe on the spot. They are also able to repeat the hearing of music innumerable times, especially later while conducting analysis. Alexander John Ellis (1814-1890) devised a computing system of ‘cents’, or hundredths of an equal-tempered semitone. His system has helped the ethnomusicologist to avoid the use of their unreliable ears and to use the exactness of mathematics instead.

There is a seeming impossibility of deskwork, to analyze and transcribe primitive music. This is due to the fact that it comes from oral tradition where melodies are not specific to one composer and vary with individual and regional changes. It also sometimes follows its own oral theories foreign and confusing to the westerner. Sachs has outlined some methods that can help surmount some of these problems.

Sachs simply describes melody as, "the audible movement of a singing voice from the beginning of a piece through all successive steps to its end," (51). The two simplest forms of a melody in primitive music are the tumbling strain and one-step melodies. The tumbling strain can hardly be thought of as melody to western ears, but Sachs found it prevalent in many primitive societies, including Native Americans of the Northwest and Southwest and peoples of the Carolina Islands. The tumbling strain is outlined by the lowest and highest notes of the singer’s range, which are then followed by cascading, descending intervals. It is repeated and is often violent and wild in nature. A one step melody consists of only two different notes, which are sung in alternation. The most complex is the melody with a quintal pattern. This contains six different notes and is based on steps or is derived from steps. The way Sachs uses of analyzing melodies takes into account how many different notes it contains and their arrangement.

A big problem encountered by ethnomusicologists when they are transcribing is how to express steps other than the ones of the western well-tempered system. The process relies on numbers, fractions, divisions, and logarithms. All pitches differ in only one way, their frequency. Using frequency to express a step can be done by dividing the frequency of the two notes. However, such frequencies as 435 and 391_ when divided produce an irreducible ratio. Also, distances cannot be expressed with the same numbers, and give the ethnomusicologist no standard measurements of intervals. These problems can be simplified by changing frequency numbers into logarithms. The equation to calculate the distance between two notes now becomes that of simple subtraction: log (x:y) = log x- log y = log i (log of the interval). This log i can than be converted into cents, the table below can be of use.

cents log cents log cents log

The ethnomusicologist is the difficult position of having to notate the melodies they have collected from their fieldwork. Sachs suggests three details to keep in mind to aid this process. It is pointless to transcribe a melody in its original key when it requires many sharps or flats. The simple process of transposing down or up by a semitone, not by any more because it is still important to keep the tessitura, make it more readable. Be sure to indicate that this has been done. Any western key signatures should not be used. The transcriber should provide a signature with only the sharps or flats they do not want to repeat every time the note is written. Within the same lines if there is a C# that does not necessarily mean there has to be an F# as well. Lastly it is important not to assume that accidentals carry through to other octaves, and should be taken into consideration with the notation used.

Sachs has a handle on all aspects of his field in his time. He is able to define its terminology, describe its work, and expound on its methods. Sachs’ research is extensive, looking at primitive music from many different cultures, and referring to the works of his peers. This source holds importance to those studying the history of ethnomusicology and should be know to those beginning in the field of ethnomusicology.