The clavichord was one of the most important instruments of the eighteenth century. During this time, it flourished in Europe as the favored instrument rivaling the fortepiano and the harpsichord. In the mid-nineteenth century, the clavichord finally ceased to be of any importance in the musical world. Only in recent years, have performers tried to revitalize this marvelous instrument.

Despite the many changes that happened to the clavichord between the fourteenth century and the late eighteenth century, the basic components and general structure of the clavichord remained the same. The following is a general description of the technical components of the clavichord.

The clavichord’s case is usually rectangular, but sometimes may be shaped in the form of a polygon. The right side contains the soundboard while the left and central sections hold the action. The soundboard varies in size from instrument to instrument. The action contains the keyboard and the key levers, which extend from the keys. The strings are stretched from left to right and attached to the left wall. In larger instruments, the strings are attached along the spine to a hitch-pin block and a hitch-pin rail. In both instances, they pass over a bridge or several partial bridges that are located on the soundboard. The strings are attached on the right to tuning pins that have been inserted through the soundboard into a wrest plank located along the right wall of the instrument. The bridge usually has small bridge pins, which hold the strings in place.

The left end of the soundboard rests on a belly-rail — a block placed across the instrument (from the front to the back) in which an opening has generally been cut out. On the right side, the wrest plank supports the soundboard. It is supported along the front and the back by liners that are glued to the front wall and inside of the spine. To add further reinforcement, the soundboard has ribs that are glued in random places underneath it. A crossbar might also be glued on the underside of the soundboard.

On earlier instruments from the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the keyboard protruded from the front of the clavichord. By the eighteenth century, the keyboard is enclosed within the case walls of the clavichord. In either case, the keyboard is surmounted by a name board on which makers would often inscribe their name. The key levers pivot on balance-pins inserted into a balance-rail running under them from the hitch-pin block to the belly-rail. The rear portion of the keys rest on a back rail that is placed along the spine. They are generally held in place by a rack. A rack is a board that is usually glued against the hitch-pin rail. It has slots in which rack tongues that are inserted into the rear portion of the key levers can slide.

The lid that covered the entire instrument was generally made out of one piece of wood, as were the four sides of the clavichord. A small area to the left of the keyboard was often left open and used as a toolbox for spare strings, tuning hammers, and other useful items.

The working mechanism of a clavichord is very simple: small metal blades, or tangents, that have been inserted perpendicularly at the far end of the key levers, strike the strings. When a key is pressed by the player’s finger, the rear portion of the key lever rises, and the tangent hits the strings. More than one key can be pressed simultaneously, thus more than one pitch can be sounded at a time.

Unlike the hammers of the fortepiano or the quills of a harpsichord, which simply set the strings in movement and makes them vibrate producing a sound that resonates against the soundboard, the clavichord tangents fulfill two functions. First, it acts as a percussion element, similar to the hammers of the fortepiano. It is this percussion element that actually makes the sound. The second function is unlike the fortepiano in that the tangents do not leave the strings once they have struck them. Instead, they remain in contact with them throughout the duration of the sound. By staying in contact with the string, the string has been divided into two sections with the tangent causing the string to be divided into a dampened section and a sounding section. The sounding parts of the strings are determined by the striking point of the tangent. Once the key is released, the tangent leaves the strings and the sound is immediately silenced.

The pitch of the sound on a clavichord is determined by several factors: the diameter of the strings, the material or density of the strings, the tension of the strings, (regulated by the tuning pins), and the vibrating length of the strings, (determined by the striking point of the tangent.)

With this simple mechanism, several pitches can be produced by the same string - by having several key levers strike it at different places. Clavichords that are built with more than one key per string are called fretted clavichords. Instruments with only one string per key (like the piano or harpsichord) are considered to be unfretted clavichords.

The overall sound of the clavichord is a very soft, delicate sound. Although two strings were generally provided for each note, the sound was very small due to the fact that the tangent actually hits the string at the end of the string. As the key is released, the sound is silenced. The loudness of the tone is determined by the force in which the tangent strikes the strings — this is completely decided by the performer. Also, the pitch may be slightly altered after it has begun by increasing or decreasing the pressure on the key.

Sebastian Virdung, the author of the first printed manual on musical instruments, Musica getutscht, admitted that he did not know either the name of the clavichord’s inventor or who gave the clavichord its name. He assumed the instrument had evolved from the monochord, an instrument that Virdung said had been invented by Guido of Arezzo. Guido of Arezzo used the monochord to teach musical intervals.

The evolution of the monochord to the clavichord is the generally accepted theory of the clavichord’s origins. In Juan Bermudo’s treatise Declaracion de Instrumentos Musicales (1555), Bermudo says that the term ‘monochord’ may have continued to be applied to the clavichord ‘out of respect’ for the former, from which it was derived.

The monochord, in its basic form consisted of a rectangular plank on which a single string was stretched by a tuning pin. Two fixed bridges supported this string. A third, movable bridge could be slid to any point under the string, dividing it in two sections to obtain different pitches. It is believed that Pythagoras, the Greek philosopher, invented this instrument in order to illustrate his theory of musical intervals and harmonics. The first occurrence of the term ‘monochord’ can be found in Nicomachus of Gerasa’s Handbook of Harmonics.

In the Middle Ages, a rectangular sound box replaced the plank. This change produced a bigger sound. In the treatise Musicae Rudimenta, by the theorist Johann Turmair, or Johannes Aventinus, and published in Augsburg in 1516, the uses and advantages of the monochord are described:

The monochord was perfected in the sixteenth century by the addition of various mechanisms to facilitate the sliding of the movable bridge under the string.

The monochord was used as a teaching aid but was sometimes used as an accompanying instrument. In an iconographical example from a miniature from a manuscript of the monastery of Werden am Ruhr, a monochord is seen together with a lyra and a zither. Two dancing jugglers are shown in motion to prove that the instrument is being used as an accompaniment instrument, rather than just being tuned.

In the tenth or eleventh century, the first development of the monochord into a more useful performing instrument is found in the organistrum. The organistrum is a lute-shaped instrument with three strings that are sounded by a resin-coated wheel that is rotated by a crank. Representations of this instrument are found on the porticos of many cathedrals. The organistrum could be played by two people: One person turned the crank, and the other person depressed the keys. The organistrum was a type of monochord and may have been linked with the invention of the clavichord.

At some time in the fourteenth century, the principle of the movable bridge on the monochord was rejected. Instead, the instrument was played with a bow in the right hand, and the left hand fingered the string. The bowed monochord sometimes had two strings and was referred to as a ‘dichord’. The troubadours were believed to have used this instrument.

In the fifteenth century, the bowed monochord evolved into the trumba marina. It contained a vibrating bridge. The sound that was produced was similar to that of a trumpet. The trumpet marine contained one to three strings.

Between 1460 and 1470, the theorist Conrad von Zabern published a short treatise entitled Novellus musicae artis tractatus. In this treatise, precise instructions are given on how to build a keyed monochord. This monochord contained twenty natural keys (G — e²) and the accidentals Bb and bb¹. His text was an attempt to revive the monochord. This has led some scholars to consider the keyed monochord as a forerunner of the clavichord.

An essential element in the conception of the clavichord was the keyboard. The development and use of the keyboard in the Middle Ages was mostly restricted to the organ. In the thirteenth century, keyboards found on organs were usually diatonic, but occasionally contained the note Bb. With the development of polyphony at the beginning of the fourteenth century, chromatic keys were gradually added. This concept of a chromatic keyboard was added to the clavichord.

By the end of the fourteenth century, the following three elements were in existence. First, several conjunct notes could be produced by striking a string at various lengths. Second, an instrument could be created with several strings stretched parallel on a resonating box. Finally, the keyboard had been developed and added to some instruments prior to the fourteenth century and finally to the clavichord around the fourteenth century. These three elements were essential to the development of the clavichord in the fifteenth century.

We know the clavichord in the mid-1400’s existed by the fact that in England, the choirmaster of Lincoln Cathedral was appointed to teach the boys the clavichord in 1477. But because no actual clavichords exist from the fifteenth century, it is easiest to trace the development of the clavichord by examining iconographical sources. In the fifteenth century, religious art is the primary source for these iconographical documents. By examining each piece of art, the developments of the clavichord can clearly be seen.

The earliest example of a clavichord in artwork is found in an anonymous oak carving from 1425. It is a carving found in the altarpiece in the Cathedral of Minden (Example 1). The small rectangular instrument in front of the third person from the left is an example of a primitive clavichord. It contains around twelve to thirteen keys, all of them the same length. The keyboard is located on the front of the instrument and is about the same width as the instrument itself. Two sound holes are found on the top of the instrument.

Example 1

Another example that shows this same type of instrument is found in a sculpture produced in 1475-1477 by Adriaen van Wesel titled Adoration of the Magi (Example 2). In this sculpture, an early clavichord is clearly shown from the front of the instrument. Sixteen keys extend from the front of the instrument. They are fairly uniform in shape and size. A lid also covers the top of the instrument with two sound holes on top. Using these two iconographical sources, it appears that a common clavichord from the fifteenth century was rectangular in shape, with a keyboard that extended from the front of the instrument. No accidentals were found on the keyboard, but all keys were generally uniform in shape and size. The soundboard was placed underneath a lid and sound holes were carved out of the lid to let out the sound.

Example 2

It is difficult to tell what the inside of the clavichord might have been like, although some sources show several strings inside the sound box that run the length of the instrument. In clavichords from this century, each pair of strings was struck by the tangents of several keys. To accommodate the tangents so they would strike the string in the appropriate area, the keys were curved or bent laterally. Overall, the instruments were very small in size.

Early treatises also give another source for information on the early clavichord. In the treatise of Henri Arnaut de Zwolle from the mid-fifteenth century in Flanders, there are several technical descriptions of keyboard instruments. Written in Latin, it contains a description of a clavichord. Arnaut describes the clavichord as a "‘dulcimer-clavichord’ or a clavichord on which a system of small hammers has been adapted, and thus sounds like a dulcimer." Arnaut also gives descriptions on proportions of strings vibrating sections and exact specifications and plans to construct a clavichord. The plans are drawn to scale but measurements are not given. Instructions for the placement of the bridge and the key levers are precisely noted. The strings are parallel to the keyboard and a single, perpendicular bridge is used, rather than several bridges. A picture of a recreation of Arnaut’s clavichord can be found in Example 3. Some modern instrument makers have also made clavichords following Arnaut’s instructions. Arnaut wrote this treatise in the mid fifteenth century, and there is no reason for doubting that the clavichord was well established at that time.

Example 3

Only five clavichords are known to have survived from the sixteenth century. Because of the lack of actual instruments, it is once again easiest to examine iconographical sources and treatises to determine what the clavichord from the sixteenth century may have been like, and to compare them to extant instruments from the century.

In a woodcut by Hans Burgkmair entitled Der Weisskunig, a large clavichord is shown with its lid open (Example 4). Although it is difficult to see the keyboard or inside the instrument, it is obvious that this clavichord is of much greater size than what had been seen in the previous century.

Exapmle 4

In a painting by Flemish painter, Jan van Hemessen, a woman named Eleanor is shown playing a clavichord (Example 5). The clavichord in this example is more in line with the size of clavichords found in the fifteenth century. The keyboard extends from the front of the instrument and accidentals are found on the keyboard. The key levers extend behind the keys and a string is visible extending above the key lever. The soundboard is most likely found underneath the key levers. An open lid is attached to the back of the instrument.

Example 5

Of the five known clavichords in existence, three of them are Italian; the other two have anonymous origins. Bernard Brauchli has listed the following about the clavichord’s characteristics in his book The Clavichord:

To summarize iconographical data and the examination of the extant instruments, Brauchli further states:

Clavichords in the sixteenth century were very easy to keep in tune. When they did go out of tune, it was very easy to adjust the tuning because of the small number of strings in each instrument.

The developments of the sixteenth century that were crucial in the development of the clavichord include frets, a keyboard with an extended range, several bridges, and strings parallel to the keyboard. These developments helped propel the clavichord into the next century.

There are eight signed and dated clavichords that have endured from the seventeenth century; there are also about twenty-four anonymous ones. Clavichord makers adhered to the basic principles that were found at the end of the sixteenth century, and continued to improve upon several features of the instrument. Some of the characteristics found on the seventeenth century instruments in existence include an increasing number of strings, and the introduction of the unfretted clavichord.

By the later half of the seventeenth century, fretting systems with only two tangents per string were common. Because of the number of notes in an octave, it was necessary to leave natural keys unfretted so that two neighboring natural keys did not strike the same pair of strings. This eventually led to the unfretting of all strings. Although no unfretted clavichords from before the eighteenth century have been found, Johann Speth of Augsburg writes in 1693 of a clavichord that has a string for every key. Although no one is sure when the unfretted clavichord actually was first introduced it is likely that by this time, it was being used.

Because the number of keys that struck any given string was decreased, the number of strings on the clavichord had to increase. The range of the clavichord was also extended to include both treble and bass parts with a range of more than four complete octaves. These two factors lead to a relocation of the strings and from this time on, they were stretched obliquely.

By the end of the seventeenth century, the importance of the clavichord was beginning to become overshadowed in France, Italy, and England. Greater importance was being placed on plucked keyboard instruments such as the harpsichord and the virginal. Playing techniques were also changing, and the music being composed for keyboard instruments no longer favored the clavichord. Not only did plucked keyboard instruments have a greater volume of sound, the harpsichord was also a larger instrument that contained more space for decoration. In countries such as Spain, Portugal, Germany, and Scandinavia, this was not the case at all. By the second half of the eighteenth century, the clavichord had become the preferred keyboard instrument of many composers such as Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach and Daniel Gottlob Turk. Clavichords were not being made frequently in the countries of England, France, and Italy in the eighteenth century, so very few are left in existence. On the other hand, over four hundred eighteenth-century clavichords have been found from Germany, Scandinavia, and the Iberian Peninsula. More than half of these clavichords are from German makers.

In Germany, and its neighboring countries, clavichord building reached a new level of craftsmanship and sophistication. Up until this point, most clavichords were made anonymously. Pride and reputation gave rise to a number of families of clavichord builders. The most notable of these families include Silbermann, Stein, Hass, Schmahl, Schiedmayer, Horn, and Friederici. Individual builders also began to appear, although many individual builders also built harpsichords and organs. Individual builders whose instruments were renowned included Christian Gottlob Hubert, Barthold Fritz, Johann Anton Fuchs, Johann Paul, and Siegmund Theodor Kramer. Often times, these builders would employ several apprentices to help in the manufacturing of instruments. Although cheaper clavichords could be purchased, these families and individuals made quality instruments.

Although unfretted clavichords had begun to be built in the eighteenth century, fretted clavichords were also still available. The unfretted clavichord gave a performer greater technical abilities, but its musical qualities were lacking. For this reason, both types of clavichords were being produced.

With the increase in the number of strings, and the tendency toward an unfretted instrument, more space was needed on the soundboard for the tuning pins. On most German eighteenth-century clavichords, the tuning pins were placed in the right rear corner of the instrument, parallel to the bridge. The bridge was most commonly in the shape of an enlarged S. To strengthen the sound of the bass notes, 4-foot strings were occasionally added.

Various stops were also added to the clavichord in an attempt to offer a variety of sonorities. The success (or lack thereof) of most of these stops was not very great, as they mostly deterred from the already small sound of the clavichord. Some of the added stops included: the Pantaleonzug, made to resemble the sound of a Pantaleon, or a large dulcimer; and the lute stop, designed to sound like a lute.

Many clavichords were used by organists as a practice instrument. For their purposes, several makers added multiple keyboards and pedals so the clavichord became a better organ substitute on which to practice.

Until 1700, most clavichords were set on tables, and did not include legs or independent stands. After 1720, many German and Scandinavian makers began attaching legs to the bottom of the instrument, or sometimes building very elaborate stands.

Although the end of the eighteenth century did not see the death of the clavichord, it had clearly tapered off, especially in countries such as England and France. Although Germans and Scandinavians continued to make clavichords into the nineteenth century, it is apparent that the eighteenth century was the golden age of the clavichord.

The position of the hand and fingers has an important influence on the quality of sound produced by the clavichord. If paintings and drawings show correct playing positions when playing the clavichord, the hand should be held in a slightly curved position. In earlier times, it was believed that the wrist and knuckles should be low, with the fingers naturally slightly bent. In later centuries, a more natural, relaxed position was used. It was also important to play with the balls of the fingers so that good contact can be made with the key. To play in a legato style, one finger must play a note at just the moment when another leaves the preceding one. With the sustaining power of a clavichord being somewhat limited, long slurred notes are very problematic: after a very short time, the prolonged note can no longer be heard. Because of this unique situation, composers of the sixteenth and seventeenth century allowed within the freedom of interpretation the possibility of repeating long notes in appropriate places.

When a key is depressed, the brass tangent strikes the string sounding and pitching it at the same time. When the key is released, a felt pad acts as a damper. During key depression, varying the finger pressure on the string can create a vibrato effect, called Bebung, by gradually raising and lowering the pitch in slight intervals. Bebung is an ornamental and expressive device. It can only begin after the attack and sounding of any pitch. The increasing and decreasing pressure should not be done rapidly, as if playing a violin, but it should be relatively slow. Bebung should be used sparingly, in just the correct manner, and only on long, expressive notes.

In Renaissance and Baroque music, it is a common practice to arpeggiate chords. On the harpsichord, this is done mainly to avoid the production of a harsh tone. When playing the clavichord, it is not necessary to worry about harshness. Arpeggiation can be used as an ornamental device rather than out of necessity.

The clavichord was valued as an instrument that was used to learn, practice, and occasionally compose music. The virginal and the harpsichord were more highly regarded as performance instruments. Because of its small sound and delicate nature, the clavichord gained no real recognition before the beginning of the eighteenth century.

Most of the music that was written for clavichord was composed in Germany in the mid-eighteenth century. C.P.E. Bach was the main composer of clavichord music, but other composers included Johann Gottfried Muthel, Johann Wilhelm Hassler, Christian Gottlob Neefe, Daniel Gottlob Turk, and Friedrich Wilhelm Rust. Rust frequently employed a variety of special effects within his clavichord music that included strumming or drumming on the strings.

As the harpsichord became more favored over the clavichord, production of new music for the clavichord also dwindled. Although it is quite likely that Haydn composed some of his earlier sonatas for clavichord, not much clavichord music is found after this.

The clavichord is a highly melodic instrument. Mozart and Beethoven both owned clavichords, as did many other composers and nobility throughout Europe. Sadly, with the invention of the piano, and its greater durability, the use of the clavichord began to weaken. Although the clavichord’s greatest flourish was in the eighteenth century, a gradual awakening is beginning to occur among performers today. One can only hope that a rebirth of clavichord playing will make a greater impact on the playing of music from the clavichord’s supreme centuries.

Brauchli, Bernard. The Clavichord. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,

1998.

Includes information on the origins and development of the clavichord. Broken down into centuries beginning with the 15^th century and ending in the 19^th century. Iconography of the clavichord. Performance practices are also discussed.

Boalch, Donald H. Makers of the Harpsichord and Clavichord: 1440 — 1840.

Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1974.

Gives specific information about the making of clavichords. Also deals with techniques used by particular makers to produce sound.

De Pascual, Breyl Kenyon. "Clavicordios and Clavichords in Sixteenth Century

Spain." Early Music XX (Nov. 1992), 611-632.

Gives descriptions of uses and owners of clavichords within the nobility.

Eisenberg. "The ‘Chord’ in Monocord, Clavicord, Harpsicord and Vocal Cord."

Galpin Society Journal VII (March 1955) 47-49.

Meaning of the words "chord" and "cord". Why term should be clavicord.

Hands, R. A. "A Scientific Approach to the Clavichord." Galpin Society Journal

XX (March 1967) 89-98.

Mr. Hands actually builds his own clavichord with a larger sound and talks about what he did to produce the larger sound and why it is more practical.

Hipkins, A.J. A Description and History of the Pianoforte and of the Older

Keyboard Instruments. London: Novello Ewer and Co., 1896.

Describes the clavichord and its uses within history.

James, Philip Brutton. Early Keyboard Instruments: From Their Beginnings to

the Year 1820. New York: Barnes and Noble, 1970.

Deals mostly with the development of the monochord and the clavichord. The development of the virginal is briefly mentioned.

Maunder, Richard. Keyboard Instruments in Eighteenth Century Vienna. Oxford:

Clarendon Press, 1998.

Lists specific clavichord makers and their instruments. Gives details as to decorations and historical background of specific instruments.

Neupert, Hanns. The Clavichord. Kassel, Basel, London, Paris, and New York:

Barenreiter, 1965.

Discusses the origins of the clavichord. Deals with modern problems in construction of clavichords. Playing technique and modern playing problems mentioned.

Ripin, Edwin M. "Clavichord." Stanley Sadie, ed., New Grove Dictionary of Music

And Musicians. London: Macmillan, 1980. V, 458-468.

Breaks down into centuries. Repertiore.

Ripin, Edwin M. Keyboard Instruments: Studies in Keyboard Organology.

Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1971.

Examples of clavichords and performance practices specific to several instruments.

Ripin, Edwin M. "A Reassessment of the Fretted Clavichord." Galpin Music

Society XXIII (Aug. 1970), 40-48.

Discusses fretting of clavichords and the reasons it was important. Also discusses differences of fretted/unfretted clavichords.

Russell, Raymond. The Harpsichord and Clavichord: An Introductory Study.

New York: C. Scribner’s Sons, 1973.

Discusses the clavichord according by country or region. Countries and regions include: France, the British Isles, Germany, and Scandinavia. Discusses each region and the use and significance of the particular instruments.

Unger-Hamilton, Clive. Keyboard Instruments. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Control

Data Publishers, 1981.

Gives a social history of the clavichord. Discusses playing techniques.